"I'm out of" means the same as "I ran out of". It means you have
no money left (or no bread, or no peanut butter, or whatever you "ran out of"), rather than just meaning that you lost money.
I think "out 10,000 dollars" is a little different. Reading it, I immediately think it refers to one transaction (one gamble or investment) and the person has lost 10,000 in that one thing. The word "out" is just the direction the money went; these expressions are common:
A: I just finished playing poker at the casino.
B: How did you do? Did you lose much?
A: I am up $50. (I won $50 net after everything)
A: I am down $50. (I lost $50 net
A: I am out $50. (I lost $50 net
A: I am in $50.
(phrase is not used)
Later it became common to use it for an investment (any investment or new business is a gamble) and for other situations where you have lost money.
A: I bought a used car for $5,000 and the engine died. It's useless. Now I'm out $5,000 and have no car to show for it.
B: I had that happen to me once. I got the engine overhauled, and it runs fine. I was only out $1500 for the repairs.
One other idea: when we read "out one and a half million" or even "out a hundred" we assume it means money, because the phrase "out+number" is only used for money.
